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CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Teaching techniques of biology teachers may and can affect the grades of the students. This chapter tells us about the proper teaching techniques for the teachers that make the grades of the students be fulfilling. This chapter reveals written data or form of literature about teaching techniques, biology, grades of the students and the teachers. Effective teaching, effectiveness of a teacher and teacher-student relationship are also cited in this chapter. This chapter also differentiates and discusses method from techniques and the purposes of teaching. Teaching science is also mentioned with laboratory techniques for both the students and teachers. And lastly, the types of examination for students are also cited in this chapter.
Hough and Duncan (1970) once said that the performances of the students are the basis of the output of teaching. One of the purpose of teaching is to help students “behave in new ways” but still maintaining their personal distinctiveness and individuality. Another purpose is, relating the distinctiveness and individuality of the students to the ones of the society.(who says?) And lastly, it is to help students achieve understanding, awareness, abilities, and sensitivity that must work efficiently. These (what?) can function effectively if the teacher willingly accepts his role that is “an agent of change”. Even if teaching may alter conduct, teachers should know that they should accept it and use it to brace up past learnings. Therefore, teachers frequently reinforce and incorporate the past learnings of the students and construct on them to increase new behaviors. (who says?) Nonetheless, the main purpose of teaching is to alter the students’ behaviors and to assist them in recognizing the possibilities and significance of their behavior. (Hough and Duncan, 1970, p.4)

The purpose of teaching is useless unless the teacher applies effective teaching skills. Joseph Lowman (1990), in his article entitled “Professors as Performers and Motivators”, came up with the elements that make up “effective teaching”. Teachers who help students in learning and understanding their lessons in a clear and orderly way are more effective than those who are unclear and perplexing. Some studies (generalization, who says?)illustrate that “interest and clarity” of the teacher are the major influences on the rating of the students. A factor was a result in the combination of techniques, and that factor is “interpersonal rapport”. The studies (whose studies?)pointed out that positive communications of the teacher are more preferred than negative. Additional studies about teaching technique have also shown that democracy in class is better than authoritarian style. Overall, Lowman suggests that excellent college teaching is results of performance and interactive ability. The teachers must behave as both executer and inspiration for their students. (Lowman, 1990)

In addition to Lowman’s article (idea? rephrase the phrase), the study of Osunde (1996) entitled “The effect on student teachers of the teaching behaviors of cooperating teachers” discussed that the growth of “professional rapport or a positive relationship with students” is a feature that gives student teachers the confidence to expand. (Osunde, 1996) (check period and where to properly place it. this was pointed in the first draft, but never corrected in this 2nd draft)

An important role of a teacher is what Barnes, Christensen and Hansen (1994) discussed in their book. It (again, not addressed.got tired of pointing this. who mentioned?) was mentioned that skilled teachers are scarce resources. As long as these teachers exert effort to a big group of students, “instructional efficiency increases”. Barnes, Christensen and Hansen also added some important point that in a large section, the instructor can draw on a wider range of student interest and experience. The necessity to limit the students’ time helps the teacher persuade to make the class practice listening, observing, synthesizing and summarizing skills. (Barnes, Christensen and Hansen, 1994)

Burnette (1999) said that certain behaviors like acting as a good teacher and educational strategies like giving some fun games during discussion allow teachers to construct a powerful learning and teaching relationship with their students who are cultural diverse. (Burnette, 1990)

The necessities in order to be effective in teaching were discussed by Highet (1968). The primary necessity of excellent teaching is the knowledge of the teacher on the subject. This means that a teacher continually learns his/her subject he/she is about to teach. The subsequent necessity is the fondness of the teacher to his subject. The two necessities are interdependent, for teaching is about learning and through time, learning comes to liking. (Highet, 1968, p. 19)

Garcia (1989) differentiated teaching method from technique. He wrote (comma) “a teaching method is an organized and systematic procedure employed by a teacher in making students learn” (Garcia, 1989, p. 21).

Lowman (1984) stated that there is a discussion technique to motivate the students to form related networks and thereby expanding and developing their knowledge and possession of their studies. This discussion technique is, questioning students to make comparisons and to differentiate concepts, theories, and individuals orally in discussion assists and supports to explain the relation in a certain area. (Lowman, 1984)Lowman mentioned “Lecturing” during every class, is not the ideal technique to educate students because it contributes students not to sharpen their learnings about facts and rationale and it would lessen their spur and contentment. Aside from this, giving an activity around groupings (i.e. group discussion) encourage students to think independently and great sensitiveness, but it gives miscarriage to the dependent students and the teacher or professor could not be sure that best details would be mastered. (Lowman, 1984, p. 131)
Lowman also mention that beginning discussion is easy when an instructor applies an essential technique and prepares his or her self to discuss from the previous section in general ways. (Lowman, 1984, p. 134)
Lowman also discussed that college teachers must control group discussion to make it easy as possible for the students to be active in class. When the students were not listening, college teachers should utilize their management to mold and lead every student’s suggestions and reactions with regards to “common intellectual conclusions”. (Lowman, 1984, p.139)
College teachers have the knowledge where and when to end the discussion. When college teacher do this, it affects the learning of the students in sharing what they have learned and the motivation with which they discuss or the next lesson. Some of them find it difficult to close the discussion when their students are extremely participating. If a college teacher has a skill to end the discussion, he or she finds it very simple. (Lowman, 1984, p. 141)
According to the study of Balce (2010), it is nice to start the class with the student’s idea by asking him or her about the experiences and knowledge they know. Balce added that in teaching science theory and model, it is good that the teacher uses the science process skills in monitoring, connecting, through art (sketch, picture or diagram), gathering and creating a representation about what he or she discusses. The author noted that:
Constant feedback was obtained as the teaching progressed because there were embedded assessment questions in the activity sheets. In addition, these were answered by solving a jigsaw puzzle, writing sentences, observing and interpreting illustrations. There was constant teacher-student interaction; thus, quick checkups of conceptual understanding were possible. (Balce, 2010)only page here.i mentioned this already but not addressed.year and author should be in the introductory line, replace the author said that:
In discussing teaching methods, Borich (1996) notes (tense consistency) two aspect of knowledge of teaching methods: selection and use of teaching materials. He also states that the decisions about textbooks and curriculum materials, workbooks, films, tests and reference works are crucial to planning. As a result, “a teacher will want to keep a record of the materials and media that may be useful in meeting instructional goals in his/her subject matter and level.” (p. 108)
Borich also explains the decisions of the teachers in teaching method. The decisions are:
· Appropriate pacing or tempo (eg. the speed at which you introduce new material)
· Mode of presentation (eg. lectures vs. group discussions)
· Class arrangement (eg. small groups, fuel class, independent study)
· Classroom arrangement (eg. raise hand, speak out) (Borich, 1996, p. 108)

Teaching methods does not only affect the students’ interest and participation but also their grades. Davis (1999) stated that teachers must “design tests that encourage the kind of learning you want students to achieve”. A lot of students learn whatever is needed for them to get the grades they want. If teachers base exams on memorizing, then memorization is the center of attention of students when studying. If examinations are on synthesis and evaluation of facts, then the students will be encouraged to practice these skills when studying. (Davis, 1999)
Davis also stated that teachers must “avoid using grades as threats”. If students are in threat of low grades, others may take it as a challenge and work hard for it. However, others may consider it as a form of discouragement that may lead them to do academic dishonesty, excuses and the like. (Davis, 1999)
On the other hand, another writer discussed and showed some teaching methods. Tiwari (2010) mentioned some effective teaching methods for the teachers to attain the aim of teaching.
Tiwari clearly noted that a teacher must first have a “writing lesson plans” before starting teaching strategy in class. The teacher must use the teaching methods, which are within the capabilities of the students, the environment and the academic curriculum. (Tiwari, 2010)
On the other hand, students act in response differently from each other. They have different ways of understanding and demonstrating the knowledge they have learned. Therefore, the teacher must have a technique to let his/ her students retain the knowledge they have learned. One technique is questioning which is very interactive. In this technique, teachers ask questions to know what the students understood and to decide what to teach further. Another technique is explaining in which teachers introduce facts in a direct and rational manner. A different but effective technique is modelling. This technique works through observation, replication and retention. Demonstrating is also a technique. This technique improves students’ knowledge by application and hones their skills thus being capable of systematizing and recognizing the lessons in an effective way. And the last echnique that Tiwari mentioned in Collaborating. This technique enables student to interact with fellow students and promotes joint responsibility. (Tiwari, 2010)
Talking about teaching techniques, there are factors to be considered regarding on the learning of the students. A study of Wright, Sandra and Sanders (1997) mentioned that the teacher makes most of the learnings clear. Also, there is a significant dispute on the judgement that the results of the students must serve as the source of the evaluation of a teacher. (Wright, Sandra and Sanders, 1997)
Evaluation of the teacher’s way of teaching is a good way to discover negative and positive results in teaching. Hough and Duncan (1970) then again mentioned, “Teachers should use objective evidence about their teaching and its effects on student learning to evaluate their own teaching”. (Hough an Duncan, 1970, p.7)
Although the idea of evaluating the work of the teacher on its efficiency and effectiveness on teaching may be known as a form of judgment on the teacher, the idea about evaluation is that it is the responsibility of the teacher to assess his/her own effectiveness. Hough and Duncan said that the main reason for teaching evaluation should be inherent on the teacher himself. When teachers truthfully and sincerely accept this act, they (who? teachers or authors?? believe that the teachers are more sensitive to react more on important issues related to their job. Through this, they tend to improve on their performance, which is constantly connected to his personal beliefs and potentials and not of the others. This response must be applied on helping the learning of the students. Part of their responsibility as teachers is to continually make progress in teaching the students. Evaluation of their teaching is very necessary to put effect on the responsibility as a teacher. (Hough and Duncan, 1970, p.7)
An example of teaching methods is the study (awkward) of Mohidin, Jaidi, Sang and Osman (2009) which attempts to clarify the perspective of the accounting students on the methods and characteristics of the teacher that are effective in learning process. They used five independent variables to test their study and these variables are learning-centered approach, teaching-centered approach, knowledge, attitude and personality of the teacher. From their bipartite analysis, they found out that the five independent variables have a positive effect in effective teaching recognized by the students in particular when single regression is in use. However, when multiply regression is used, only two of the independent variables, which are teacher characteristics and teaching centered approach, have a positive relationship with effective teaching. The results entail that teacher characteristics play a very important role in knowing the effective teaching especially in accounting subjects. ,(Jaidi, Sang and Osman , 2009)
Students’ reactions are very important in evaluating the teacher. According to Daughtry (2010), occasionally, “feedback” is the hardest effective educational strategy. To provide suitable feedback, teachers must be firm, but inspiring by commending the success of the student and giving direct and specific information the error of students. The teacher must encourage the students to check and observe each effort and learn to assess both themselves and their colleagues. (Daughtry, 2010)
Teaching science is not easy. Staver (n.d), noted teaching science efficiently is not easy but a fulfilling work. Knowing that students are learning, the teachers treat it as a reward because it is the product of their effectiveness in teaching. The first key principle in teaching is that teaching is a firm means in helping the students learn. It is the responsibility of the teacher whenever a student works hard but fails to learn. Teachers must accept the fact that effective teaching means frequently being conscious and look after the struggles of the students to learn science and constantly regulate their strategies and techniques to help students in difficulties. Through this, teachers must lay down high learning expectations, concentrate on essential ideas, and aspire for deep, integrated knowledge of scientific queries and the core body of scientific understanding. (cite always who says the idea)The latter must know how the former actively make new knowledge, as well as the difficulty of the learning process, the significance of the interest of the students, and the potential worries and disagreement with science concepts. Another reward for the teachers is being aware that their students are encountering a sound in education in science, one that trains them for further studies and for their works and professions, and that also assists students indentify the meaning, worth, value, and significance of science in their own lives. (Staver, p.8)

Wetzel (2009) noted that teaching technique that promotes curiosity to the students inspires to learn science. He said that when a student has questions on his or her minds because of the new idea, teachers are push to learn new discoveries. Teachers are very conscious of this unexpected change in students; a curios appearance of their eyes and face. The students are full of curiosity resulting to ask questions about the new information, and it needs concentrated research for the hard science questions. (Wetzel, 2009)
The following strategies mentioned involve distinguished rules and direction to meet the requirements of the students in a science class. The appropriate techniques for the perceptible learners involve listening and watching films that tells the current issues and happenings and hands-on approach. The author who? also stated, “Curiosity is also an essential component that leads to creativity and a heightened state of exploration, excitement, and interest surrounding science issues.” (Wetzel, 2009)
According to Study Up (2010), the foremost technique to be followed in teaching science is to gradually move and progress. The teacher must be clear and elucidate? with the lessons before proceeding to the next. Students must be well guided by the teachers through a systematic and identified process. The teacher should plan first and then expressively carrying it out so that the students can take hold of the content of the lesson. The teacher must first know the background information of the group, which allows them to choose the way of informing the students and implementing the information. Consequently, the teacher must establish and arrange the environment and the content for teaching the students. It would be much simpler and helpful if the teacher can incorporate the concepts of science and technology being learned in everyday lives through examples and ideas. (cite always the source.do not use their ideas if you would not cite them) This can guarantee realistic learning as well and help students to recognize how theories are practiced every day. (Study Up, 2010)
Teachers need help in teaching science. Science Impact (2010) discussed teaching techniques which can help the teachers. Whenever a teacher is having a problem in approaching the students, asking fellow teachers is a very good thing to do. In asking fellow teachers, it is also a way for them to learn from each other. Other suggestions of techniques are, “to keep your teaching methodologies up-to-date and fresh. Attend a workshop or seminar on teaching.” Teachers should also read books about teaching techniques and ask students through survey what kind of techniques is comfortable for them. With this, the student can apply it in his/ her teaching. Another is for the teacher to level the discussion with the capability of the students to grasp the lessons in class. It would be much easier for the students and for the teacher as well. Integrate various teaching methods in class so that the class will not be bored. (Science Impact, 2010)
If we talk about science teaching, it is always associated with laboratory works. Ozay, I. Ocak and G. Ocak (2009) discussed in their study that laboratory experiment or slide demonstration attracts the minds of the students in science teaching. On the other hand, oral-only lectures are tiresome for the students and cause them to lose their interest in the subject. Ozay, I. Ocak and G. Ocak added that visual material provides understanding that words cannot express alone and it makes it easier for a student to put into memory the learnings he/she have. (Ozay, I. Ocak and G. Ocak, 2009)(no need,you mentioned them already in the beginning of the sentence.)
In addition, Ozay, I. Ocak and G. Ocak said that the laboratory setting is more favourable environment for learning than lecture rooms because it makes the student witness real life situations and it is a chance for them to train their skills in problem solving. Moreover, laboratory setting gives the students the chance to do hands-on experiments and to think actively and reflect on the knowledge they have learned. Moreover, laboratory setting helps the student to exercise their teamwork skills and inspires them to train their interpersonal skills as well as raise their spirit of teamwork and leadership. Lastly, oral presentations give a chance for students to hone their mental and presentation abilities. (Ozay, I. Ocak and G. Ocak, 2009)
In the study of Lord, Travis, Magill and King (n.d) entitled “Comparing Student-Centered and Teacher-Centered Instruction in College Biology Labs” which compares undergraduate non-majors biology lab section that were taught in a teacher-centered style.(not a sentence; fragment) This style is traditional where classes are mainly lectures and direct instruction. The students in this class are usually passive and they accept whatever information they learn from the teacher without any questioning. The other style introduced by the study is the constructivist style or student-centered learning which makes the students more active for they are formed in groups in which they discuss ideas and discover one or more solutions. Teacher supports the students in discovering new ideas and relates them to the previous lessons. In the study of Lord, Travis, Magill and King, they used results in weekly lab quizzes, attendance, science attitude test and analysis of videotapes to know if the student interest and performance are affected by how the teacher uses style in the classroom. The groups showed several noteworthy differences in the statistical tests and the tests demonstrated that the constructivist class got higher scores, more interest in science, better attendance and higher participation in the laboratory activities than the traditional group. (Lord, Travis, Magill and King, n.d)
From the laboratory setting, we must also mention the laboratory teacher. In the article of Williams (2001), she shared how she works as a science laboratory teacher saying that it “does not end once they master lab techniques”. Even though the students have learned laboratory techniques, it is not a guarantee that they can make good written reports. She said that:
This is a critical consideration for me as an educator for two main reasons: first, the assessment of my students comes primarily from their written reports; and second, the future success of my students largely depends on their written skills, both academically (applying for research grants) and beyond. (William, 2001)
For William, she help her students with their writing skills, she asked herself what she can do. She discovered that “clearly explaining the instructions and learning objectives for each lab experiment” assists her students to write good reports. She “explicitly state the purpose of the lab and the learning objectives of the written report” in her pre-lab instructions. Brought in and gave details he important notes, draw out why and how the steps are to be done, and give them the idea of what the results will be in the experiment. (William, 2001)
In addition, Lowman (1984) also speaks tense consistency on how the college teachers should take consideration the significance of the grades of the students and the seriousness of it without unnecessary worry and angst. Moreover, the author said:
Giving a student a grade significantly higher than he or she deserves may provide momentary pleasure or relief to the student but is unlikely to engender respect for educational institution or to help him or her accept the responsibility or appreciate learning. (p.206)
Lowman mentioned that the teachers show the same series of views concerning the grading responsibility. The old teachers are more responsible and can handle discussion properly. Unlike them, new teachers have a little fear to face this challenge. Others appreciate and adore assessment and consider hard examinations as miserly. (Lowman, 1984, p.185)
Lowman also added that the types of examinations are usually based on the preference of the teacher, beliefs, availability, and habit. In picking the format of the examination, it is better to choose what is closely related to the objectives of the subject. Many teachers have different objectives and use different methods like multiple-choice for details and essays for understanding and assessment. Factors may influence the format of the examinations. (Lowman, 1984, p.204)
Furthermore, Lowman emphasized that if we talk about types of examinations, objective and subjective are usually used. Multiple-choice type of exam is objective because it is graded using pattern or high technology (i.e. computer scanning device). On the other hand, subjective type of examinations may vary about the points given and criteria of it. (Lowman, 1984, p.195)
To sum it up, Study Up mentioned that the foremost technique in teaching is to gradually move and progress. In teaching science, students want to be more active. Therefore, students want to be more involved in laboratory experiments and practical experience (Ozay, I. Ocak and G. Ocak). In giving examinations, it is in the preference of the teacher. It was suggested by Lowman to choose format of the examination related to the objectives of the study. Lowman also mentioned that the teachers should take consideration on the significance of the grades of the students.