callanta salvosa chapter 2

Chapter 3 (reposting; failed to upload the comment last week)
1. gives the same parallel explanation to that of Karganilla’s study (redundant either ‘as that of Karganilla or ‘as Karganilla’s study)
2. he in-service teachers as low also prove (d) to be contributory (awkward; change)
3. He further discusses (tense consistency; you used past tense earlier)
4. In addition, Piccinini(2009) also stated that “computational theories of cognition are functional”, that they describe performance in terms of functionally defined states, processes, or mechanisms. It doesn't follow that if computationalism is true, then functionalism is true. To acquire functionalism from computationalism, additional assumption is also needed, such as that the nature of mental states is computational. On the other hand, to acquire computationalism from functionalism, independent assumption is also needed that all functional conditions are computational (p.1-2). (check ;faulty placement of intro line)
5. activate representation of space in the brain. (Consorium, 2008 p.18) (period should be after the parenthesis)
6. As cited should be a smaller cap (as cited)
7. The studies are not conclusive, (;) however,
8. The experiments focus on children in three age groups from kindergarten to high school) (why there is a closing parenthesis?where does the open par begin?
9. (A study entitled, ) A survey on the music use and preference of the college students of the University of the Philippines Visayas Cebu College by De Erio and Halasan (2010) would
10. The good perception that resulted from (in) the response of the respondents
11. Filipino music showed us that (the) relationship between memory and perception.
12. A research from the Salk Institute stated that there are evidences that dark chocolate has great potential to improve blood flow in the brain and might lead to improved memory as a result so as the population increases every year, there would be an upcoming demand on food or food product that contains components that help in the brain’s blood flow circulation and memory response (Entenmann, 2006). (too long; it weakens the idea.break)
13. He further attests (tense consistency)
14. The Filipino Woman’s Perception of Chocolate is a study on how Filipino women, although they felt satisfied when eating chocolates, who feel that eating chocolates are not good for their physique and health (Gomez and Virlouvet, 2010). (fragment)
15. Too much carbohydrate (e.g. sugary foods) is bad for the brain and causes irritability and inattentiveness instead; take in vegetables and fruits help boost your brain power she further described. (check)
16. Increasing the intake of foods rich in Omega-3 oils are necessary for brain health and development because they improve communication between brain cells and enhance mood and learning skills, playing games that help develop your logic, reasoning skills and concentration are also advised by Davidson. (too long; confusing)
17. According to Bobbie (2008) that (omit that) there are also other ways of boosting brain performance and their benefits to the brain health and these may be the use of games, puzzles and novelty of habits.
biblio
1. materials are substantial but proper APA format not followed
2. refer to orquillas/decena's biblio (mth 1-2:30) for reference

CHAPTER II

Review of Related Literature

The proponents of this study gathered related studies or materials from different sources i.e. books, the Internet, articles and other unpublished materials on the subjects related to cognitive performance, chocolate, and other subjects that may be parallel to the same topics. The ideas are arranged here according to their categorization as primary variables to secondary variables that may affect the effects of dark chocolate on the logical thinking skills of freshmen students of the University of the Philippines Cebu College.

There had been studies in the past prior to this study that focused on the behavior of people towards certain stimuli, just like the study entitled The Relationship between the exposure of foreign music in FM stations and the perception of fourth year UP High School Students towards Filipino music which explains that the respondents of the study made a good perception towards Filipino music regardless of gender and level of exposure (Karganilla, 1994). Quijano’s (2000) study, the use of the Internet and its influence on the Social and Mass Media Behavior of selected high school and college students of Cebu city gives the same parallel explanation to that of Karganilla’s study showing that the respondents of the study give a good perception towards the influence of the Internet. Response from Laping’s (1974) study entitled The Relationship of mental ability, personality factors, teaching attitudes and efficiency ratings of elementary school teachers in one of the districts in the province of Cebu which examines the intelligence quotient and the capability of the in-service teachers as low also prove to be contributory along with Karganilla’s (1994) and Quijano’s (2000) study to the assessment of the behavior and response from the brain which may result to the improvement of the thinking abilities of the mind.

Gazzaniga (1992) presented that all brains vary tremendously in details which means that no two brains are exactly alike, not even with monozygotic twins. Martinez (2010) stated that the cerebral cortex or, more simply, the cortex, functions for the higher-order functions like reasoning, intelligence, creativity, and problem solving. He explained that the portion of the cerebral cortex where the processing of cognitive performance is located is the frontal lobe. Martinez said that specifically in the cerebral cortex, the pre-frontal cortex or most forward section is where the complex cognitive functions like attention control, planning, decision-making, goal-setting, strategic reasoning and self-monitoring can be located. The qualities of human intelligence may be described through the activity present here in the pre-frontal cortex.

Intelligence cannot be measured directly since it is the total capacity of the brain’s mental activities (Punsalan, T., et.al, 2006). In relation to intelligence, Punsalan and others (2006) believed that genetics is correlated to the intelligence quotient of individuals. For them, intelligence quotient was a comparison of test results between the respondents of the same age range. They believed that there are environmental factors that may contribute to the increase in the intelligence quotient level of an individual. They also believed that the intelligence quotient of a certain individual can be affected by knowledge gained throughout experience and time. Intelligence quotients are believed to be constant as stated by Punsalan and others (2006) which meant that a person’s intellect does not go down or up in increments throughout a person’s life.

Other than intelligence, cognition was associated with the brain and its functions. Cognition as defined by Benjafield (1993) is a “faculty” since it can be the action of knowing or the study of the processes or both. According to him, cognition is the faculty concerned with activities such as memory, imagination, and judgement, and reason. He further discusses that metacognition is the name for the knowledge that people have about the way the cognitive processes work. Cognitive processes are one of the processes that involve logical thinking and may develop the skills needed for critical thinking. Rowlands (As cited by Pritchard, 2010) explained that cognitive processes are not located exclusively inside the brain. His study presented a thorough test to normal theorizing about cognition which largely takes it as given that cognitive processes take place completely inside the body. As one considers cognitive processes as mental processes, then the “extended cognition thesis” makes a more thorough conclusion still, that the mind can reach beyond the tangible body. The nature of cognition is further explained by other researchers since the philosophy behind it is understood in different manners. According to Cummins (As cited by van Rooij, 2008), one of the primary reasons of studying cognitive psychology is to explain cognitive capacities of human. Marr (As cited by van Rooij, 2008) stated that:

There are many kinds of cognitive capacities. Some are “high- level and/ or knowledge rich” (e.g., reasoning, decision- making, categorization); others are “low- level and/ or knowledge poor" (e.g., form perception, motor planning). A cognitive capacity can be a sub- capacity (e.g., letter recognition) or super- capacity (e.g., sentence understanding) of another capacity. Further, a cognitive capacity may be realized by a whole organism (e.g., husn), a part of an organism (e.g., a brain, a neuronal group), a group of organisms (e.g., a social group, a society), an organism- tool complex (e.g., a human- computer combination), or even an altogether artificial device (e.g., a computer). (p.941)

Piccinini (2009) said that computationalism has been the conventional view of cognition for decades. Computationalism is the view that intelligent behavior is described by computations performed by the agent's brain. In roughly equivalent terms, computationalism says that cognition is a computation. Computationalism comes in many versions, which continue to guide competing research programs in philosophy of mind as well as psychology and neuroscience.

In addition, Piccinini(2009) also stated that “computational theories of cognition are functional”, that they describe performance in terms of functionally defined states, processes, or mechanisms. It doesn't follow that if computationalism is true, then functionalism is true. To acquire functionalism from computationalism, additional assumption is also needed, such as that the nature of mental states is computational. On the other hand, to acquire computationalism from functionalism, independent assumption is also needed that all functional conditions are computational (p.1-2).

A research conducted by Consorium (2008), examined the relationship between cognitive systems that underlie music and mathematical abilities. Specifically, she and her colleagues undertook studies to determine whether, when children or adolescents produce music-comparing and operating on melodies, harmonies, and rhythms they activate brain systems that also enable them to compare and operate on representations of number and geometry. If music training fosters mathematical ability, it could do so by activating and enhancing one or more of these systems. In addition, music training could activate and enhance processes that connect these systems. The findings of their study showed consistency with recent studies that suggest that sequences of tones spontaneously activate representation of space in the brain. (Consorium, 2008 p.18)

Furthermore, Schellenberg (As cited by Consorium, 2008) indicated that many studies have documented that musically trained children and adults outperform their untrined peers on the test of academic aptitude, especially in mathematics. These studies are consistent with the possibility that musical training enhances children's core cognitive capacities. The studies are not conclusive, however, because they focus on complex measures of higher cognitive function, such as IQ scores, that depend on multiple, diverse cognitive abilities. If music instruction enhances particular cognitive functions, however, its effects should be evident in tasks that tap those core functions more directly. This describes three experiments that were conducted to investigate associations between music training and performance on each of the core systems at the foundations of higher cognition in mathematics and the sciences. The experiments focus on children in three age groups from kindergarten to high school) and on music instruction at three levels of intensity. In different studies, Consorium (2008) and her colleagueas compared the effects of music training to a no-instruction control, to sports training, or to training in other arts disciplines. By the various methods, they tested for fundamental associations between musical and mathematical cognition which showed that music and math may go well together (Consorium, 2008 p.19)

A survey on the music use and preference of the college students of the University of the Philippines Visayas Cebu College by De Erio and Halasan (2010) would prove that music can influence the mood and the stimulation of the brain and its functions. According to their study, music are preferred mostly due to the need for relaxation which would prove to be effective. Memory may be the most benefited function of the brain when listening to music.

Russell (1959) believed that memory is the capacity to repeat. Memory fixation is categorized into 2 phases: the short term memory and the long term memory (Bachelard, 1981). Bachelard elaborates that short term memory lasts about 30 minutes, taking in information within this time frame and categorizing these into information to be stored in the long term memory or not. Rolls (2000) stated that short term memory is a method used by the brain to maintain the production of neurons during a short memory period after the end of a stimulus which would explain why the memory lasts for only a short period of time. Memory can be associated to perception as confirmed by Solso (1991). Perception, whether good or bad may be a good tool for recognition in the memory area of the brain. The good perception that resulted from the response of the respondents of the study of Karganilla (1994) entitled The Relationship between the exposure of foreign music in FM stations and the perception of fourth year UP High School Students towards Filipino music showed us that relationship between memory and perception.

Memory may be associated to history and the records that prove anything existed. The Aztecs were creating chocolate from cacao beans which was a long process that involved drying grinding, heating, and many more according to Compton’s Encyclopedia (1996). In his article, De Jesus (2006) wrote that the people who are given credit for bringing chocolate to the world are the Spaniards. He narrated how cacao beans, the main constituent of chocolate were brought by Christopher Columbus to Spain and how Hernando Cortes brought the first chocolate drink to Spain. He also wrote how the obsession for chocolate has endured through time ever since the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V of Toledo, Spain had a sip of the chocolate. Even before, it seemed that chocolate has garnered praise for centuries from the Aztecs and Mayans even before Columbus discovered these beans as stated in the Compton’s Encyclopedia (1996). But chocolate did not only garner praises but also criticisms that even led to banning the drink at one time, as written by De Jesus (2006), due to the theory that the drink caused sexual arousal and pleasure.

The people of the early 17th century were not totally wrong in thinking that chocolate may be the reason for elevated mood or hyperactivity. Dr. Bryan Raudenbush (as cited in Lyons, 2006) from Wheeling Jesuit University in West Virginia also conducted a study that coincided with that of other researchers stating that:

Chocolate contains many substances that act as stimulants, such as theobromine, phenethylamine, and caffeine. These substances by themselves have previously been found to increase alertness and attention and what we have found is that by consuming chocolate you can get the stimulating effects, which then lead to increased mental performance.(para 2 and 3)

This is supported by other researchers like Ian A. Mcdonald, PhD, from the University Of Nottingham Medical School in the United Kingdom who conducted a study, The Neurobiology of Chocolate: A Mind-Altering Experience?, wherein the results suggested that the intake of chocolate increased the blood flow and liberation of glucose which indicates that cognitive performance was enhanced (Sciencedaily.com, 2007). Hollenberg (2010) and others have observed that the observable improvements in blood vessel function following flavanol rich cocoa consumption are paralleled by an increase in the circulating pool of nitric oxide, a critical molecule in the circulatory system that helps surge blood vessels and keeps them supple in a study that they conducted with the Kuna Indians of Panama, who are heavy consumers of cocoa. A research from the Salk Institute stated that there are evidences that dark chocolate has great potential to improve blood flow in the brain and might lead to improved memory as a result so as the population increases every year, there would be an upcoming demand on food or food product that contains components that help in the brain’s blood flow circulation and memory response (Entenmann, 2006).

Entenmann (2006) also stated that chocolate may contain cocoa but not all types of chocolate are beneficial to the body the same as dark chocolate which contains more cocoa than any other chocolate. He stated that milk chocolate for example does not have the same benefits that the dark chocolate can offer. Not only that but according to Entenmann (2006) drinking milk while eating chocolate cancels out the benefits that dark chocolate offers. He further attests that it is also better to take note of the darkness of the chocolate since the darker it is the more benefits are contained in it. Extensive processing, dilution, and the addition of flavor modifiers may improve the palatability of chocolate, but could have negative nutritional and clinical benefits (McShea, A., Ramiro-Puig, E., Munro, S. B., Casadesus, G., Castell, M. and Smith, M. A., 2008).The Filipino Woman’s Perception of Chocolate is a study on how Filipino women, although they felt satisfied when eating chocolates, who feel that eating chocolates are not good for their physique and health (Gomez and Virlouvet, 2010). Gomez and Virlouvet’s study listed that there are a lot of benefits that the body may acquire when eating a bar of chocolate even though there are those women that feel that the consumption of chocolate do not help in improving their health, physically.

Lynnee Davidson (2010) believes that brain power may be boosted through several ways. Getting sufficient exercise helps improve oxygen circulation and concentration and will promote the growth of new brain cells. Davidson believes that an average of six to eight hours of sleep allows the brain to process new knowledge and practice it well. Too much carbohydrate (e.g. sugary foods) is bad for the brain and causes irritability and inattentiveness instead; take in vegetables and fruits help boost your brain power she further described. Increasing the intake of foods rich in Omega-3 oils are necessary for brain health and development because they improve communication between brain cells and enhance mood and learning skills, playing games that help develop your logic, reasoning skills and concentration are also advised by Davidson. The use of your imagination or what Davidson calls “creative visualization” is also good for accelerated learning, improved memory and motivation thereby increase in brain power. According to Bobbie (2008) that there are also other ways of boosting brain performance and their benefits to the brain health and these may be the use of games, puzzles and novelty of habits.

The gathered related materials and studies provided information on the different variables involved in this study. The information gathered helped in narrowing the limitations of the study in the areas wherein the proponents may not be able to further study deeper due to lack of financial resources. Each encountered problem in other theses may be used by the proponents in the future during the conduction of the experimentation. Due to the information on the previous mistakes of other researchers, the proponents of this study may be able to anticipate any extraneous variables coming in during the experimentation. Due to the studies and sources gathered, the study may have a better and much clearer direction towards explaining to its readers the effects of dark chocolate on the logical thinking skills of UP Cebu fourth year High School students. The review of related studies had also given a better view to the readers on what resources were used during the conduction of the study.