cosmo, embog

1. in the “professional and technical positions and in administrative and managerial positions.” (p.16) (quoting a phrase, period should be after the parenthesis)
2. but for the UP graduates, waiting period is relatively shorter. (Arcelo & Sanyal, 1987) (period placement) always at the end of a parenthesis)
3. Furthermore, the Arcelo and Sanyal (1987) also determined (check sentence)
4. and quantity surveyors, ship and aircraft officers, air traffic controllers, legal associate professionals, social welfare associate professionals, even clergy.”(p.1-2) (period placement)
5. On the other hand, the Sion and Burlaza (2003) also outlined (check sentence)



Chapter II: Related Literature

The researchers of this study found numerous related literature of the study’s topic variables. The researchers gathered theses, books and journal articles found from the University of the Philippines Cebu College Library along with articles and journals found from reputable websites on the internet. The literature collected has been found to be correlated with the study’s major topics: Employment— on University of the Philippines graduates, job satisfaction, employer preference, employee preference, data; Psychology degree— career paths, data; Underemployment— causes, effects and data.
The employment market in the Philippines has seen better light in the previous year. The July 2010 Labor Force Survey reported 36,286 (in thousands) employed persons in the whole Philippines, a considerable increase from 2009’s 25,508 (in thousands) reported employed persons. The data gives the whole country a high employment rate of 93.1% versus the unemployment rate of 6.9% by July of 2010. Along with the data was the underemployed persons reported to be 6,490 (in thousands), a drop from the previous year’s 7,304 (in thousands). (National Statistics Office, 2010 a, b, c)
Graduates from the University of the Philippines have proven to have the upper hand in employment in the recent years, a light note that reflects the positive progress of the labor market. In a research study by Arcelo and Sanyal (1987), a graduate from the University of the Philippines shows a big potential of landing in the top two major occupations specifically in the “professional and technical positions and in administrative and managerial positions.” (p.16) With respect to how long a graduate waits to obtain a job, the average waiting period is about six months. Graduates who are unemployed are usually voluntary, as they are still seeking the right career for them, but the delay for those who are seeking jobs have attributed it to the lack of job opportunities for them. Nearly 80 per cent of employed graduates got jobs within a year after finishing their courses, but for the UP graduates, waiting period is relatively shorter. (Arcelo & Sanyal, 1987)
Furthermore, the Arcelo and Sanyal (1987) also determined from their respondents that 29.7% employed graduates were graduates of the University of the Philippines, second only to Propriety Colleges (35.9%) but higher than Catholic Colleges (14.7%). The top-ranking fields of specialization of UP graduates were from the Social Sciences with 18.8%, Medicine (18.4%), Engineering and Technology (16.9%), Business Administration (10.9), Law and Foreign Service (9%), Physical and Biological Sciences (6%), Teacher Education (3.8%), Liberal Arts (3%) and Music and Fine Arts with 2.6%.
The employments of the University of the Philippines’ graduates were also surveyed by Arcelo and Sanyal (1987). The study found that 73.7% of graduates were “professional, technical and related workers”, followed by 11.3% of “administrative, executive and managerial workers”, 5.3% of “clerical and related workers”, 3.8% “sales workers”, 2.3 “agricultural workers”, 3% “production, transportation and related” workers and 0.6% of unclassified (p.103).
The employees of the said employments have hired graduates who are not necessarily from a job-specific course (except for fields that require applied sciences degrees), as pointed out in the same study, commerce and business administration studies land “standard occupational classes”, teacher education graduates can land a variety of jobs, but liberal arts, social sciences and humanities graduates face the problem of a job market that is not as flexible to their fields compared to engineering graduates who can land jobs that are usually occupied by commerce graduates in the administrative and managerial sector (p 16). (Arcelo & Sanyal, 1987)
Despite the positive feedback from the employment sector of the Philippines and the graduates of the University of the Philippines, job-seekers who wish to land jobs that are in-line with their degrees have not been so lucky. In connection to the underemployment reported previously, according to the preliminary July 2010 Labor Force Survey of the National Statistics Office, the whole Philippines had an underemployment rate of 17.9%. In the regional level, Central Visayas or Region VII where the University of the Philippines Cebu College is located, had an underemployment rate of 13.8%. This information, although not limited to specific graduates of a certain course, gives us an idea of how much people are reduced to settle for a job that has little or no relevance to their bachelor’s degree.
Data taken from Arcelo and Sanyal’s (1987) study stated that 47.1% of Social Science graduates (in which the Bachelor of Arts in Psychology is under) are employed in jobs that are in line with their field of specialization. However, they also found that 17.6% of Social Sciences graduates are employed in jobs requiring business administration training and 15.7% in jobs that required skills in teaching. The minority in the percentage of graduates being employed in jobs that are not in line with their field of specialization is explained by the well-rounded training of liberal arts degrees that widen the employability of their graduates.
Graduates of a Psychology degree have been educated in such a way that they are able to deliver a wide array of skills and knowledge upon employment, therefore increasing their employability. This fact also gives us a clue on why Psychology graduates often end up working for jobs that are hardly even related to their course. Andrew Stevenson (2005), in his paper “What can I do with a Psychology degree?” showed statistics he had gathered from the Association of Graduate Careers Advisory Service (AGCAS) of Psychology graduates who have begun work 6 months after graduation.
Stevenson (2005) found that 17.4% of the said graduates pursue the “professional and technical field”. By “professional and technical”, Stevenson (2005) explains “... includes numerous occupations which are not obviously associated to psychology; architects, town planners, librarians, scientific technicians, draughtsperson and quantity surveyors, ship and aircraft officers, air traffic controllers, legal associate professionals, social welfare associate professionals, even clergy.”(p.1-2)
The unavailability of data pertaining to the employment outcomes of Psychology graduates in the Philippines leads us to depend on those from international sources, just to provide us with the state of employment of the graduates in the international job market, as it could be applicable to the Philippine setting. The data compiled by the American Psychological Association (APA) from the National Survey of Recent Graduates published in 2003 by the National Science Foundation/ Division of Science Resources Statistics should give us an idea of the status of careers of international students/graduates in the United States regarding the relationship of the graduate’s job with their BA/BS degree in Psychology. The data shows that 31.6% of degree holders have jobs that are closely-related to their degree, 34 % of “somewhat related”, and the biggest percentage comes from degree holders who have jobs not related to BA/ BS Psychology at 34.4%.

In more recent findings, a study on American Psychology graduates (Rajecki & Borden, 2009) found that 30.8% of the said graduates landed jobs that are not related at all to their college degree. This data is further backed up by Robst (2007) revealing that 55% of graduates land jobs that are related to their degree, 25% have those that are partially-related and the 20% have jobs that are not related. Robst also stipulated that the degrees that usually do not land jobs that match each other are from linguistics, social sciences and the liberal arts.
A study from the University of the Philippines Cebu College has assessed the different variables of the causes and effects of the underemployed status of some Filipino graduates. Burlaza and Sion’s thesis (2003) has found four main reasons of why graduates opt for a job that are not at all related to their college degree, as follows: no vacancy (unavailability of jobs) and income are both at 36%, followed by the tied need for experience and no other choice for employment at 14%.

On the other hand, the Sion and Burlaza (2003) also outlined the opposite sides of job-education match and mismatch. Along with the causes for underemployment also come the disadvantages of underemployment to the graduates and the advantages of having a job corresponding to their college degree. The research has found competition and less compensation or benefits as the main disadvantage of being underemployed (both at 31%), followed by the lack of interest (25%) and ineffectivity at one’s job (13%). Variables of the advantages of having a job that are related to the degree were also evaluated by the researchers. The respondents deem “knowledge theory application” as the most advantageous variable (40%), followed by job effectivity at 22%, higher compensation at 24% and job stability/tenure security at 14%.
Turning to the other end of the spectrum, there are graduates who purposely postpone employment to pursue higher education. Psychology graduates aren’t always satisfied with attaining a bachelor’s degree. More ambitious graduates seek for further education in the field to be able to fully practice the Psychology profession, and obtain higher educational titles and positions in employment. According to Papalia and Olds (1988), there are three levels of studying that a Psychology major can undergo to work in the field of Psychology. A four year college course will give a person a Bachelor’s degree in Psychology allowing him or her to work “as a welfare caseworker, a worker in rehabilitation program, a community health center or some other psychological facility”. (p.25) If the graduate wishes to pursue graduate school, two years of graduate studies will guarantee a Master’s Degree which would make possible working “as a school psychologist, in a clinic or with business or government agency.” (p.25) The next higher step is a doctorate degree. This would take three up to six years of studying and would prepare psychologists in “the traditional areas of research and clinical work for a Ph. D (Doctor in Philosophy).” However, there is a post-graduate study which has a more specific and practical focus. This is Psy.D. (Doctor of Psychology) where instead of a dissertation like in a Ph. D., a Psy.D. Candidate conducts a study or project related to their future goal which might be in psychotherapy, school psychology or any other subfields.
In a 2001 study by the American Psychological Association, Doctorate Degree holders have the highest employment rate, at more or less than 90% followed by MA/MS Degree holders then by Bachelor’s Degree holders. Most of those who are unemployed and are seeking for jobs are the bachelor’s degree holders tied with doctorate degree holders, but at a very minimal rate. For the unemployed and not seeking jobs, the highest rate is from the bachelor’s degree holders followed by the master’s degree holders then lastly by the doctorates. This study clearly implies that the higher a psychology graduate’s educational attainment, the higher is the chance of being employed.
A study by Freeman (1971) stated that a big number of workforce in the United States came from “high-level work force”. The trend now is that employment in “professional, technical and kindred jobs” is increasing therefore a large number of young people are now enrolled in universities to achieve higher education. Freeman’s findings in connection with the APA’s signify that a considerable percentage of graduates have been pursuing higher education for better employment opportunities.
Graduates seeking to pursue higher education may be in for some challenge, as applicants are already weeded out during the application process. A study about the graduate training of psychologists (Sternberg & Williams, 1997) stipulated that graduate schools choose the best students for their program and refer to their Graduate Record Examination (GRE) to determine the eligibility of the individual. This poses as a challenge for Psychology graduates who are not necessarily great in academics but are willing to take up further studies for their degree. This path might not be much of a problem for University of the Philippines’ graduates though, as 49.4% of them assess themselves as above-average students and 44.6% as average students (Arcelo & Sanyal, 1987), signifying superiority in intellect and educational records.


In lieu with the information about the University of the Philippines’ graduates in terms of employment that was previously discussed, literature was also collected to evaluate the ways and means of employed UP graduates in obtaining their job. University of the Philippines graduates obtained jobs through their company’s personnel office, unlike findings from a precursor of Arcelo and Sanyal’s (1987) study (HELMS I, 1981) that reported that majority of the graduates obtained jobs through friend/s or relative recommendation. Current findings of Arcelo and Sanyal (1987) have ranked the latter second to a company personnel office followed by recommendation from teachers, school placement office, media advertising and the government placement office.


Generally, factors that contributed to any graduate’s preference of jobs were evaluated in Burlaza and Sion’s (2003) paper which found that most of the respondents rated benefits and compensation as the most influential factor, followed by interest, stability/ tenure security, work location, working environment , position/rank, influences and need for work connection/referrals as the weakest influence (Table 7).


However, with the advent of the world wide web that spawned through the years since Arcelo and Sanyal’s study, graduates have also resorted to online sources suggesting certain occupations for a graduate with a Bachelor’s degree in Psychology. A study by Rajecki (2008) found that occupations advised by on-line authors that are usually referred to by Psychology graduates seeking for employment suggested jobs that are not a match for Psychology bachelor’s degree graduates. These job suggestions would render a job-seeking new graduate underqualified (for jobs that need a higher degree of education) or overqualified (for jobs that do not need a bachelor’s degree). This discrepancy of information has proven to be disadvantageous to recent graduates, as overqualification or underqualification for a particular job has repercussions for job-seeking graduates.
Moving from the job-seeking stage of the graduates, one also has to evaluate the ways and means of the employers in making employment decisions. Employers in general, usually utilize selection tools in deciding whether or not to hire an applicant. Two studies were found regarding the two widely-used tools utilized by employers. A study about the cognitive ability test used by employers to predict job performance by Richard K. Wagner (1997) argued that cognitive ability tests were advisable for those who are new on the labor market, as quoted: “Unlike selection tools such as checking references or evaluating prior performance, cognitive ability tests can be given to individuals who are new to the job market” (para. 4). The same study also cited one by Schmidt, Hunter and Outerbridge (1986) that found that the job knowledge— a factor employers value in an employee— predictors constituted Job Experience (57%) and Cognitive Ability (46%). Furthermore, a cited study by R.J. Sternberg (1994) in the same article has found person-context interaction (cognitive abilities, knowledge, styles, personality, motivation, roles situations, values and luck) as a variable in determining job performance. Employers also utilize personality measurement tests (R. Hogan, J. Hogan & Roberts, 1996), described by McKinnon’s (1944) study cited in Hogan’s et al. as referring to a person’s reputation and his or her temperaments. Personality measures were deemed by Hogan and his fellow researchers as sustainable or long-term predictors of significant occupational outcomes of employee prospects, and works well hand-in-hand with cognitive ability tests.


As for employers dealing with Psychology graduates, the three topmost variables that were found to be important to employers were: skills and abilities, knowledge, and personality traits (Cannon, 2005). Under the category of skills and abilities are: proposal and report writing, identifying/solving problems, conducting interviews, administering standardized tests, computer analysis of data, observing/recording behavior, constructing tests & questionnaires and research projects (Table 2). Employers also look for a graduate’s knowledge in: formation and change of attitude and opinions, the manner in which people think, problem solve, process information; organizational development, human learning and motivation, peoples' perceptions and sensations, personality and human development theories and research and abnormal behaviors: symptoms, causes and treatments (Table 3). Lastly, personality traits employers search for are: motivation, leadership, organization, positive attitude, flexibility, communication skills, intelligence, problem solving ability, maturity, tolerance and integrity (Table 3).


Employed graduates of the University of the Philippines also cited job preparedness from their college degree as an important factor in employment. The value and usefulness of educational qualifications and training were evaluated by Arcelo and Sanyal (1987) in their study. University of the Philippines’ graduates determined that educational qualifications are “very necessary” at 57.3%, “necessary” at 22.3%, and “extra-ordinarily necessary” at 13.8%. The usefulness of formal training was deemed very necessary at 51.1%, followed by necessary 13.8% and extraordinarily necessary at 13.8%. All in all, educational qualifications and training were valued at “very necessary” by University of the graduates at 55.8%.


The necessity of educational qualifications and training also led to the evaluation of the content and method of instruction at the University of the Philippines. Forty-point-six percent of UP graduates evaluated the method of instruction as “very adequate” followed by “adequate” at 39.5%. The content of instruction was rated as “very adequate” at 44.7% followed by “adequate” at 32%. (Arcelo & Sanyal, 1987).
When an applicant is employed, the average new employee would mind certain factors in his or her employment. Among them are income, gender-based career progress and job satisfaction. The Arcelo and Sanyal (1987) study outlined the most important factors that determine a graduate’s starting salary: work experience and field of specialization. “Socio-Economic status variables of graduates, type of firms and regions from which students came from do not have influence on their earnings differentials, but occupational classification, industrial classification, type of university and educational attainments of graduates had some influence.” (p.17). In relation to this, acquiring a job with minimal or no relation to the degree field was found to have an effect on an employee’s income, as stated in a study by Robst (2007).
Gender-based career success of Filipino graduates seem to be non-existent in the current times, as found in Rosalyn Castro’s (2001) study of the Filipino graduates’ career advancement, but graduates who were student leaders of organizations or councils in their previous colleges were found to have more success in their career’s progression than those who were not active in extra-curricular activities and institutions.
Arcelo and Sanyal’s (1987) study laid out the variables of the job satisfaction of the employed UP graduates. Fifty-four percent of their respondents were satisfied with their current job— the respondents were still in the job-transition period as they were only two years into their job following graduation. Among the variables that the respondents stipulated that were the cause for their satisfaction were ranked as: self-fulfillment (1st), utilization of talents (2nd), good employee relations (3rd), job security (4th), good career prospect (5th), good income (6th), time for leisure (7th), travel opportunities (8th) and scholarship opportunities (9th). On the other hand, UP graduates also ranked the reasons for job dissatisfaction as follows: little or no opportunities for self-fulfillment (1st), less career progress (2nd), unsuitability to personal goals (3rd), poor working conditions (4th), non-application of college training (5th), and workplace conflict (6th).
Furthermore, the thesis of Burlaza and Sion (2003) found that 65% of their 96 respondents (most on their first-year employment right after graduation as the major age group is 21-26 years old) are satisfied with their present job, while 35% were unsatisfied. On the issue with having a job that are related to their college degree, 53% of them are satisfied while 47% were unsatisfied. The data goes to show that job satisfaction also relies on the relatedness of the job to the degree the employee had taken previously.


However, in a study conducted about the relationship between job satisfaction and job performance (Judge, Thorensen, Bono & Patton, 2001), in which the researchers studied different models of the relation between job satisfaction and job performance, they found no substantial or significant relationship between the two variables; therefore it was concluded that because of the substantial lack of foundation and weak correlation, the state of an employee’s job satisfaction does not reflect on job performance, or vice versa.
With all the sources we had gathered, we have found that the variables in our study have a significant number of related literature that would support their significance and relatedness to each other and to our future findings. There has been numerous literature gathered about the employment of Philippine graduates and those from the University of the Philippines and the Psychology graduates of the international labor market. This study aims to specify further the variables examined by the related literature to be able to examine the employment status of the BA Psychology graduates of the University of the Philippines in terms of underemployment and job-course match. This should also lead us to be able to identify the factors that led them to their current status and be able to assess their job satisfaction rates base don their current disposition.